What potential benefits can medical treatments using stem cells provide (part 6)

Stem Cells Research

The longer that researchers work with embryonic stem cells the more issues seem to crop up. The idea that ESCs can survive indefinitely in culture, thereby providing an inexhaustible source of cellular treatments, is only partially true. Recent studies have shown that while ESCs will reproduce quite happily again and again in suitable growth medium, over time they develop chromosomal abnormalities similar to those found in some cancers. Stem cell pioneer James Thomson agrees that embryonic stem cell lines have a limited “shelf life.” He notes that “over time, you accumulate mutations. It’s a fact of life. It’s just a question of differences in the rates. If you accumulate enough of those mutations, you could actually create cancer.” (Humber 2004) In fact, the dual threat of mutations and the introduction of mouse viruses in Thomson’s original stem cell lines is one of the reasons cited by researchers for lilting the Bush administration’s restrictions on funding for new lines of embryonic stem cells. (Humber 2004)

Moreover, while it is true that embryonic stem cells can be used to create “any kind of cell in the body,” that same developmental elasticity works against ESCs as well as in their favor. In fact, only a few researchers have been able to differentiate an embryonic stem cell culture into a pure cell culture of the exact kind of cell they were seeking. It is even more questionable whether the researchers who have been able to differentiate the ESCs into targeted cell populations have been able to consistently repeat the task. In the vast majority of “successful” attempts to change embryonic stern cells into specific cell types, the result was instead a petri dish that contained an unhealthy melange of unwanted cells along with the target strain. (Holland et al 2006)

But for now, only embryonic stem cells can he considered truly pluripotcnt, their inner essence still molten enough to shape. “They (ESCs) are a blank slate,” stated Dr. Theo Palmer, neuroscientist at the Stanford University School of -Medicine. “They do not know what their role is. An adult stem cell has enormous potential that’s already been realized.” (Humber 2004) Palmer asserted that embryonic stem cells should he easier to work with than the adult version for this very reason.

While scientists, admittedly, are still groping for ways to reliably “retrograde” the blank slate of the embryonic stem cell, the possibilities just seem too great to ignore. And embryonic stem cells, since they come from a point where the organism has yet to mature, simply provide much more insight into the complexities of stem cell function and development. Ironically, years of research spent on embryonic stem cells are very likely to teach scientists how to best reprogram an adult stem cell to make tissues as easily as an embryonic stem cell can.

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What potential benefits can medical treatments using stem cells provide (part 5)

At the most basic level, the promise that stem cells hold is also the source of the controversy over them. The idea that replacement parts for our bodies might one day be as easy to create as ordering prescription medication from the local drugstore is breathtaking. But if these same cells can only work their magic through the destruction of human embryos, then cure and curse will be one and the same to many people. To those who see a human being’s life as starting from the moment of fertilization, regenerative medicine via stem cells is nothing more than high-tech cannibalism. There is an alternative, imperfect though it may be. In recent years, scientists have discovered that similar kinds of cells can be found outside the holy sphere of the human embryo’s blastocyst. These “adult” stem cells can be found in the blood, the pockets of our bone marrow, the umbilical cord, under the dermis of the skin, and, just perhaps, buried deep in the brain.

What Are The Adult Stem Cells?

Adult stem cells (ASCs) are the technology of choice among those who morally object to the use of embryonic stem cells. At a May 2005 White House press conference, President Bush reaffirmed his opposition to funding embryonic stem cell research outside of the existing stem cell lines, but praised the use of “alternative sources” of stem cells. (Potten et al 2006) The ones mentioned in the above paragraph, such as stem cells from bone marrow and umbilical cord blood, are classic examples of ASCs. “With the right policies and the right techniques,” Bush asserted, “we can pursue scientific progress while still fulfilling our moral duties.” (Potten et al 2006) But is this indeed the case, or is it wishful thinking? As with many complex subjects, there is no clear-cut answer.

The degree to which adult stem cells can be put to use often depends on who is being interviewed. However, if one sticks as closely as possible to what has been reliably reproduced in multiple laboratories over time, some hard facts do become available. That is, at least as “hard” as the facts can be, before the technology advances yet further and changes reality yet again.

Clinical Research

A fair number of therapies involving adult stem cells are in human clinical trials at present, and the number continues to grow. It is likely that these therapies will make their appearance at the local hospital or health clinic long before embryonic stem cells can even begin to make it to human trials. At the third annual meeting of the International Society for Stem Cell Research, held in 2005, the clear majority of the presentations dealt with therapies related to adult stem cells. (Holland et al 2006) Clearly, the interest—and, not coincidentally, the private sector venture capital—lies in ASCs for now.

Embryonic Stem Cell 

There is simply no tool as powerful as the embryonic stem cell (ESC). In possesses, in the words of one researcher, “the potential to address every single disease or condition that our species is heir to.” (Holland et al 2006) This is because embryonic stem cells, which are extracted from the fifth day of the embryo’s blastocyst formation, have such a high degree of developmental plasticity that they are capable of becoming any type of cell in the body. It is medical fact that ESCs are incredibly pluripotent. (Humber 2004) However, a second look must be taken when advocates of embryonic stem cells claim that the cells can be grown in infinite numbers.

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What potential benefits can medical treatments using stem cells provide (part 4)

What is Regenerative Medicine?

Regenerative medicine is a field that is still very much in its infancy. “Before stem cells can lie used routinely, there is a great deal more that researchers have to learn,” reports one embryonic stem cell researcher. “We still don’t know what signals are required to make the stem cells mature into specific tissue types. It’s also only educated guessing at this point about how to avoid tumor formation or rejection after transplanting stem cells into a new host. You might say that Nature holds her cards close.” (Potten et al 2006)

International Research Team Conclusions

The rejection issue is being researched at Stanford University, utilizing strains of laboratory mice for testing. Dr.Vlicha Drukker has been part of an international research team examining the immune response that might be launched against transplanted stem cells. “We used two experimental platforms to examine the in vivo immune system response toward transplanted stem cells,” said Dr. Drukkcr. “First, mice with both normal and immunodeficient immune systems were used to identify T cells as the major component that causes rejection.” T cells are a subset of leukocytes or white blood cells. They can be thought of as the “hunter-killer” cells that swarm an infection. “Second,” said Drucker, “mice that were conditioned to carry peripheral blood leukocytes from human origin were used to test the response toward undifferentiated and differentiated human embryonic stem cells.” (Potten et al 2006)

Using this model, Drukker’s research team detected only a minute immune response toward both undifferentiated and differentiated stem cells over the course of a month. “Our data showed that stem cells evade immune destruction due to a low immunostimulatory potential,” said Drucker. (Potten et al 2006) If this feat is replicated in human stem cell transplants, then the possibilities for healing damaged organs and tissue without fear of rejection greatly expands the range of possibilities for stem cell therapies.

Given enough time, it is likely that therapeutic cloning will become more acceptable to the vast majority of Americans who view it with certain queasiness today. This will be for two reasons. First, given the pace of advancements in the field of cellular surgery, it should eventually be possible to remove portions of the inner cell mass of a blastocyst without destroying the embryo. Second, a little-noted fact about stem cell research is that the knowledge gleaned at the cellular level allows the best window into how a disease such as Parkinson’s or diabetes works. Stem cells, in other words, can operate as valuable research tools in the background, instead of taking center stage as a transplant therapy. (Lovell-Badge 2001) Once every aspect of a disease’s biology is thoroughly understood, a targeted drug or therapy can be developed and administered. Eventually, it may be one where a patient will never know that a stem cell was involved in figuring out the remedy.

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What potential benefits can medical treatments using stem cells provide (part 2)

Stem Cell Research

The therapies being researched stand to decrease human suffering by unheard-of levels. They are replete with cures for multiple types of cancer, liver disease, sickle-cell anemia, and more. However, less than a handful are beyond the earliest stages of development, and even the most basic clinical studies are years—up to a decade or more1—in the future. Slightly more than $1 billion was spent on stem cell work in 2005, which again sounds like an impressive sum. (Carrier et al 2007) However, when compared to the total amount spent globally on health-care R&D, it’s less than stellar: a mere 1 percent. (Carrier et al 2007) The analysis cited also takes into account the potential hobbles of heavy government regulation and environmental concerns. Both are highly likely, given the public’s uneasiness with topics related to cloning and human embryos.

Predictions of the Scientists

The consultants at Bain & Company predict a far more modest forecast of a $100-million market for stem cell therapies by the end of this decade. (Carrier et al 2007) By 2015, the forecast is more optimistic, rising to $2 billion worldwide. (Carrier et al 2007) Again, impressive numbers when viewed in isolation. And yet one cannot help but notice that the conservative forecast for the decade disagrees with the optimistic one pushed by stem cell boosters by a factor of 100. The same ratio holds in the amount spent on health-care R&D: For every dollar spent on stem cells, $100 is placed elsewhere. (Carrier et al 2007)

Investment in Stem Cells

Another interesting fact is that more than four-fifths of the global investment in stem cells has come from governments. Private venture capital, the traditional engine of biotech start-ups, pumped an anemic $50 million into the field in 2005. (Carrier et al 2007) The trend is sharply higher today, but why has it taken seven years from the time the first stem cell lines were made available to even start to grow? The real issue at hand for the stem cell industry is funding: specifically, federal funding. Due to the compromise worked out by President Bush and the religious conservative wing of his party, federal funding is only available to firms that are working with stem cell lines derived from human embryos before August 9, 2001. (Carrier et al 2007)

There was a strong backlash against this decision by groups who wanted to press stem cell research forward as quickly as possible. Proposition 71 passed by California voters to hand over $3 billion in state money, was only the beginning. (Carrier et al 2007) Just as California tends to set trends for the rest of the country in terms of culture, the West Coast’s cutting-edge initiative system tends to do the same thing. California’s measure has set off similar legislative issues in other states.

When most people talk about cloning, they generally mean the copying of the entire organism, as in the case of Dolly the sheep. Since this is the kind of cloning that yields offspring, for clarity it is called reproductive cloning. At present, researching this kind or cloning to create new human beings is shunned in the scientific community, and nations that have any laws on the books at all in regards to stem cell research and cloning embryos expressly forbid the reproductive cloning of humans. When discussing the benefits of stem cell research, however, what is actually being discussed is therapeutic cloning. This is when embryonic stem cells are harvested from the newly created embryo and expanded in a culture dish. (Holland et al 2006) Though the goal in therapeutic cloning is different, both types of cloning yield a clump of cells that has the potential to grow into a whole organism.

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What potential benefits can medical treatments using stem cells provide (part 1)

What potential benefits can medical treatments using stem cells provide?

Within the scope of this research, we will assess the potential benefits that medical treatment using stem cells can provide. The term “cell” comes from the Latin word cella, or “small room.” (Potten et al 2006) Robert Hooke, a seventeenth-century Renaissance man, coined the term when he first peered through his handcrafted, leather- and gold-tooled microscope at a piece of cork. Reportedly, he came up with the name when the little cells he saw through the microscope reminded him of the small rooms that housed medieval monks. (Green 2001) In humans and other forms of animal life, stem cells are the special, primal structures in the body that retain two special traits: first, the ability to divide indefinitely, and second, the ability to differentiate into other cell types.

These traits are at the root of why stem cells are a source of both order and chaos, representing miracle cure and a societal curse. Specifically, the cells that show the most potential can only be retrieved with great difficulty—and through the destruction of a human embryo. It’s possible that these “embryonic” stem cells may lead to great things in the future, lint in the here and now, religious conservatives see their destruction as nothing more than a high-tech form of cannibalism. Belief over what is right permeates the field of stem cell study and its researchers.

The race to nail down venture capital for stem cell research is still wide open. Compared to the dot-com days, where venture capital was flowing in like a tidal wave, the behavior of the high-risk start-up “angel” investors strikes many as puzzling. While there is a great deal of media coverage about the great things that are just around the corner, the fact is that when a private investor moves to support the industry, it still makes headlines. To take one example. New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg has donated $100 million to John Hopkins University. (Carrier et al 2007) Even though an unspecified portion of the donation was to support stem cell research, the news reports touted this as a major—if not the sole—reason for the philanthropy. It is also more than a little interesting that other private investors have been much more active in spending money to encourage state government funding, as opposed to direct donation.

Some securities analysts have forecast that by 2010, the market for stem cell technologies will exceed $10 billion. (Carrier et al 2007) These are very heady numbers, ones that would make most investment firms salivate. But others have taken a look at these numbers and dismissed them as the same type of math that led to the over-valuation of the dot-com companies and their subsequent meltdown. According to The Economist, consultants with the firm Bain &c Company have taken a much more sober look at the state of the nascent industry. As of early 2006, there are now roughly 140 stem-cell-related products in development. (Carrier et al 2007) Again, depending on which end of the telescope one looks into, this can look promising or underwhelming.

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Part 6 

My Career

Introduction

The destiny of a person is very important and it all depends on choices that are made early in life and not later. Among the important things in life is a career path of an individual right from grade one upwards to grade twelve. This paper analyzes how a career should be selected and what important things or issues to consider when choosing a career.

My Career

It takes some effort to get to the right track in conjunction with careers as there are many challenges that are associated with choosing these careers, however it is not the same for many young people as (Allen…103) says that “A person can have an overwhelming number of things and still function clearly and positively”. Young women and men sometimes face problems in choosing careers for the reason that there are role models that they emulate and some of them and in fact many of them are under pressure from parents to do what they want and even to be what they are, for instance, if parents are doctors or lawyers or engineers they could want their sons and daughters to take this career course regardless of their qualifications and ambitions. But this is a wrong way of doing things as (Howse, Hugh & Marshall…167) notes clearly that, “it is unwise to encourage a child to be a quitter; on the other hand serious damage can be done in forcing children in situations where they are desperately unhappy”. For my case parents have been very supportive to this end.

Since childhood the dream career is to become an engineer and the engineering field is too wide from material engineering to environmental engineering. For this case, Civil Engineering is the career in heart and many colleges and universities in the world offer Civil Engineering. There are so many points that are taken into consideration and they vary from one institution to the other i.e. admission requirements, tuition, accommodation, students’ co-curricular activities and many others as (Maxwell…32) notes that, “there is great significance on less considered questions of how, when and where when plans are laid to achieve an objective”. The best colleges and universities are technical or technological and science-oriented ones, for example, Minnesota State University and Michigan State University. However, for my choice, it is Minnesota state university which has slightly lower tuition fees, a flexible work-study program and ranked among the top-notch universities in the United States of America and the world. With its good name and exemplary performance, many employers book students in advance to get them early to work for them. This is the unique reason as to why I have chosen this university. The undergraduates work as interns in the various field concerned with Civil Engineering while they are studying and some have had arrangements to work there during holidays like summer holidays for wages. With all the above benefits, the admission requirements are very stringent which need higher grades from high school and college to obtain an admission. Research facilities in the institution are state-of-the-art.

Nevertheless, anything good comes with its costs. Many other universities and colleges are costly when it comes to engineering courses but Minnesota University if a little lower which is average $31,000 plus all other expenses apart from personal expenses. This may not be a burden to many people as there is a stable study-work programme.  The arrangement of the university and potential employers to attach the students of all fields more especially Civil Engineering has admirably enhanced work experience of students. The slightly lower fees have enabled many a student to complete their studies in time and smoothly without interruption. The combination of these two points i.e. lower fees and industrial attachment have assured many students that they may not miss opportunities I among them during this economic crisis all over the world.

Students’ welfare right away from relating with others, that is to say, communication to assistance from the Department of Civil Engineering has reduced the stress that is associated with this field of my liking as (Stewart…78) “Listening skill itself is handy in not only solving conflicts but improves and natures interpersonal contact”. The units covered in this faculty are transferable to hundreds of colleges within and without the country and this is an important point to consider in case of an internship abroad.

Conclusion

So often when there is a good start, always the end is very beneficial and satisfactory. Personally, I am happy and on the way to success whereby it will be a crown of contentment to my parents, friends, community and a country as a whole. It will be a dream-come-true. The best focus when choosing a career is based on the marketability of the field of study during hard and soft times. My success which is around the corner will be an encouragement and a light to other many young people from my locality and a country as a whole.

Time periods

The period refers to the settlers from the German regions of Anglo and Saxony. The settlers made a way to Britain after the fall of Roman Empire during AD of 410.  From the late 5th century, Anglo-Saxons began to inhabit the area. Consequently, the Anglo-Saxons brought their own religious belief. But most of them converted to Christianity when Saint Augustine arrived in 597. The period of Anglo-Saxons ended for 600 years i.e 410 to 1066. During that period many changes appeared in Britain with respect to the political scene.

The old English literary works were developed like epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles etc. Out of them, 400 surviving manuscripts exist. The most famous work is Beowulf which mentioned as a status of Britain. The Anglo-Saxon arrival ended Britain’s involvement with Roman culture and institutions. The Anglo-Saxons almost entirely by non-British teachers such as Irish, Frankish Gaul, Rome etc. The achievement of the Anglo-Saxon was remarkable with respect to cultural, religions, economic, political, art, architecture etc.

The Anglo-Saxon literature has gone for research for the different periods i.e. 19th and early 20th century,
literary merits and at present on paleography. The period in literature was described as Old English particularly for the period of 650 to 1100. Some familiar works include Widsith, Beowulf and Caedmon.  The work Widsith is one of the earliest Old English poems belong to the 7th century.  With respect of Beowulf, it belongs to oldest surviving Germanic epic and longest important poem in Old English. It was composed by Christian poet.

The arrival of Saint Augustine in AD 597 much linked with Sub-Roman Britain and history of Britain from the end of the Roman Imperial rule. It is attracted the academic and popular debate.  The written material such as Saint Patric and Gildas available for the period.  The highlighting the Christianity at the time was contributed by Patrick’s Confessio.

Major essay

Introduction: literature review

Research on interpersonal communication can and should contribute to the development of scientific findings. Yet, some scientific truths are created by imperfect humans using methods based on probabilistic inferences and puzzled with all sorts of potential for error. The problem of relying on interpersonal communication research, without some method of assessing errors, is that the results may not only produce inconsistent findings but a chaotic theoretical approach to future research.

Allen (1997) suggested that many narrative or box-score reviews that try to make sense of interpersonal communication research could end up simply perpetuating errors and relying on chance. Additionally, the scholar suggested that attempts to explain inconsistencies in the interpersonal communication literature become more confused, especially when the number of studies becomes larger and larger. Allen (1998) explains that this happens because errors cannot be accounted for on the basis of methodological assumptions or some other type of examination of the investigations. Meta-analysis handles the issues of assessing the impact and the contribution to inter-study variability in outcome on the basis of random factors relating to sampling error.

Other interpersonal communication scholars such as Preiss and Allen (1995) argue that striving to formulate theories must also sift through all sorts of information riddled with various types of errors. They argue that a sophisticated examination, comparison, or classification does not provide a good basis for analysis without a statistical method for elimination of error such as meta-analysis. A telling example of the quandaries faced by these and other scholars summarizing large domains of complex research may be found in the similarity and attraction literature. Sixty years of accumulated literature resulted in competing theoretical camps and disagreements over germane processes and methodological approaches.

Dependent and independent variables

There are many approaches and possibilities for employing a meta-analytic review (Preiss & Allen, 1995). Occasionally, the results of a series of meta-analysis call into question an effort that is presumed to exist. For example, many scholars assumed that widespread differences in interpersonal communication were based on biological gender. That conclusion was called into question in communication by Canary and Hause (1993) and in the social sciences in general by Hyde and Plant (1995). The overall results led Allen (1998) to call for reconsidering both measurement and theoretical approaches. The examples of independent variables on interpersonal communication in his studies are self-esteem, power in language use, self-disclosure, communication process discussions, and interpersonal conflict.

Our goal is to have the outcome from the investigation match the empirical outcome that is considered to really exist by the scholars. The comparison is between what the investigation produces using the significance rules and the outcome considered to be real or “true.” There are four possible outcomes of an experiment or survey, regardless of the relation assessed. Of the four outcomes, two are consistent and two involve errors. No errors have been committed if the investigation finds an effect (rejects the null hypothesis) and there is, in fact, a relation. Similarly, no error has been made if the investigation concludes there is no relation (fails to reject the null hypothesis) and in fact, no relation exists. The other two outcomes are considered errors because the outcome of the investigation is inconsistent with what really exists (Allen 1998).

Conclusion

As social scientists, many scholars wish to offer conclusions that address group tendencies. If the question is “Do men or women initiate relationships?” a meta-analysis on this topic would not assert that all men or all women initiate expressions of interest. The conclusion is simply that one of the two groups is first to begin the conversation. Predictions about individuals are not made, because the level of analysis is the group. This observation often leads to the assertion that the social sciences are “soft” or unable to offer robust generalizations. Hedges (1987) explored this assertion by variability found in the natural sciences (the “hard” sciences) and the social sciences. His meta-analysis found that there is actually slightly less variability in investigation outcomes in the social sciences. Variability, then, it not something unique to the social sciences, but rather is something that occurs in all sciences investigating group-level outcomes. The difference is that the hard sciences have, for many years, been using some form of data aggregation to compare and contrast the variability in findings (e.g., smokers vs. nonsmokers, drug trial vs. placebo, bombarding one element with electrons vs. bombarding a different element).

Once the results of interpersonal communication research are tested for error, scholars can begin to treat the findings as a much closer approximation to the truth. Consider the example of the interpersonal consequences of self-disclosure. Allen (1998) draws on earlier meta-analyses, summarizes key theoretical issues (sex differences, self-disclosure and liking, and reciprocity), and concludes that self-disclosure is indeed a foundational issue in relational development and management. When interpersonal communication research findings can be demonstrated as consistent across a large set of investigations, the confidence in the findings grows, as does the predictability of generating various outcomes.